[Return to the front page.] [Go to the previous essay.]

Meditation had been known from the outset as one of "Three Studies" in Buddhism: sila (morality), samadhi (concentration) and prajna (wisdom). Shakyamuni the Buddha achieved enlightenment of wisdom through observation of morality and intensive meditation. To the Buddha, meditation was the basic means of attaining wisdom and truth. Although these Three Studies always went together, it was Zen Buddhism that came to the world with its bold claim to place the practice of zazen meditation over and above the performance of rituals and the study of the scriptures.

Zazen in Japanese, tso-ch'an in Chinese, is compound of za (tso) --sitting with legs acrossed-- and zen (ch'an) meditation which is the abbreviation of zenna (ch'an-na) from Sanskrit dhyana. It means, therefore, sitting with legs acrossed in meditation.

The masters of Zen Buddhism were devoted to the practice of meditation rather than the interpretation of the scriptures. Zen Buddhism was essentially an attempt to grasp a principle of life through daily and practical living, rather than through study of words.

Zen Buddhism traditionally regarded Bodhidharma,an Indian dhyana master, as its founder. He is said to have had an audience with Emperor Wu (502-550) of the Liang dynasty. He is also reported to have spent nine years in meditation before a wall of his chamber. There are many legends about Bodhidharma, but reliable information about his life is scarce.

There is a dispute among scholars concerning the exact date of Bodhidharma's arrival in China from India. He probably came to China shortly before 527 and died about 534. His teaching is known as "Two Entrances and Four Acts": theoretical and pragmatic approaches and four types of pragmatism, viz., punishment, causation, lack of avarice, and abiding with truth. The last pragmatic category represents the approach of Zen.

It was during the time of Tao-hsin (580-651), the Fourth Patriarch, and Hung-jen (601-674), the Fifth Patriarch, that Zen Buddhism began to receive some public recognition. The movement was called at the time Tung-shan Fa-men (the Dharma Gate of the East Mountain) after the name "the East Mountain of Mt. Shuang-feng," where the Fifth Patriarch resided. The name Ch'an-sung (the Zen denomination) seem-ingly was not used before the ninth century.

Zen Buddhism proclaimed the significance of meditation for the attainment of Buddhahood. Theoretically, it did not differ from the basic teaching of Mahayana Buddhism. One's mind remains in serenity and becomes identical with wisdom of truth (Dharma) when he discovers his own authentic self which lies behind his superficial consciousness and which is the essence of all sentient being, namely, the Buddha-nature. And truth is revealed with the discovery of one's Buddha-nature.

After the death of Hung-jen, the Fifth Patriarch, Zen Buddhism was split between the northern school, headed by Shen-hsiu (d. 706), and the southern school, headed by Hui-neng (638-713).

Shen-hsiu was actually the heir of the Fifth Patriarch, although the Ch'uan fa-pao chi, a Zen chronicle, placed him as the Seventh Patriarch. He had a reputation for scholarship, devotion, and charisma. When he died in 706, he was over a hundred years old.

The actual schism was initiated by Shen-hui (668-760), a disciple of Hui-neng, in his attempt to establish the legitimacy of Hui-neng, his master, over Shen-hsiu. Shen-hsiu, the headmaster of the monastery of Hung-jen, was recognized by people at large as the heir to Hung-jen, having been invited by the Emperor Wu in 701. He was a faithful follower of the Fifth Patriarch and the outstanding Buddhist scholar of his age. Yet Shen-hui criticized the teaching of the northern school as going only half-way.

In short, the criticism was based on the difference between the two opposing views of enlightenment: whether it is a gradual or sudden. The southern school held view of sudden enlightenment and denounced the view of gradual enlightenment of the northern school. According to Shen-hsiu, a person can achieve Buddhahood by departing from impurity, attachment, and thoughts. A person can attain enlightenment and wisdom (prajna) by keeping himself in serenity of trance (samadhi) and meditation. According to the southern school, the attainment of Buddhahood has nothing to do with the conditions for quietistic meditation, such as serenity or purity. Buddhahood is realized by anyone as soon as he or she ceases thinking of how to attain it. In the southern school, the Buddhahood became a reality available in one's daily life, while in the northern school, it was believed to be gradually achieved through meditation and study. The sharp criticism of Shen-hui caused a substantial setback to the northern school, which became extinct by the ninth century.

The southern school began to flourish from the third generation after Hui-neng. Among the masters in the third generation, Ma-tsu (707-786) and Shih-t'ou (700-790) produced the five influential schools in the history of Chinese Zen Buddhism.5 The school of Ma-tsu especially became dominant in Chinese Buddhism in the later period. Ma-tsu taught that truth consists in the ordinary way of life. He answered a monk's question on how to attain the enlightenment as follows:

Cultivation is no use for the attainment of Tao [the way]. The only thing that one can do is to be free of defilement. When one's mind is stained with thoughts of life and death, or deliberate action, that is defilement. The grasping of the truth [Tao] is the function of everyday-mindedness [or ordinary mind]. Everyday-mindedness is free from intentional action, free from concepts of right and wrong, taking and giving, the finite and the infinite.... All our daily activities "walking, standing, sitting and lying on [sic]", all response to situations, our dealing with circumstances as they arise: all this is Tao.

All activities of the mind in everyday life are virtually identical with the function of the Buddha-nature. This claim was apparently a result of pragmatism and actualism which Zen Buddhism inherited from Chinese culture.

Furthermore, Zen Buddhism developed its unique method of dialogue (mondo), that is, question and answer, in which an answer is often given by borrowing a thing or a subject from the immediate circumstances. Numerous cases of mondo were recorded by monks in Zen chronicles, and some of them were later chosen by the masters as koan (common case). Many koans are seemingly illogical in terms of verbal logic. But they contain deep reflections about human nature. Students of Zen are, therefore, asked to grasp it in each case through their own language and experience. The use of koans in Zen meditation incites a person to attain the same reflection which is universal to all mankind.

(2)

Japanese Zen Buddhism

Before the full-scale transplantation of Chinese Zen Buddhism to Japan which took place from the end of the twelfth to the thirteenth century, Japanese Buddhism had already been influenced to some extent by early Chinese Zen Buddhism. Dosho (629-700), a scholar of the Dharma-character school, learned the outline of Zen while studying Buddhism in China in 653-670. A century later, Tao-hsuan, a Chinese monk of the northern school, came to Japan. He transmitted Zen meditation to Gyohyo, who in turn passed it on to Saicho Dengyo (767-822), the founder of the Japanese Tendai School.

The person who is commonly regarded as the actual founder of Japanese Zen is Eisai (1141-1215), a Tendai monk. During his second visit to China (1187-1191) he studied Zen Buddhism under a master of the Lin-chi (Rinzai in Japanese) school. Shortly after returning to Japan, he founded the first Zen temple, Shofukuji, at Hakata in Kyushu in 1195. But the effort to promote Zen Buddhism was banned by the Imperial Court in Kyoto because of the growing pressure from the Tendai school, which did not welcome competition. Eisai then moved from Kyoto to Kamakura, where he established another Zen temple, Jufukuji, in 1200 under the patronage of the Kamakura military govern-ment that ruled the nation at the time. And using the strong backing of the Kamakura military government, he soon established the Kenninji Temple in Kyoto in 1902. However, since the Kenninji Temple was officially affiliated with the Tendai school, Eisai himself remained a Tendai monk. In any case, he laid the cornerstone of Zen in Japan.

One generation after Eisai, a man totally devoted to the cause of Zen Buddhism went to China, bringing back the tradition of the Ts'ao-tung (Soto in Japanese) school with him. He was Dogen (1200-1253), the founder of Soto school in Japan. He achieved enlightenment under the guidance of Ju-ching (1163-1228), being designated by the latter to succeed him in the line of the Ts'ao-tung school. Upon returning to Japan, he first taught Zen Buddhism in Kyoto, but later moved to the remote area of Fukui, where he established the Eiheiji Monastery. Dogen demanded from his disciples strong moral commitment and rationalism alongside of the rigorous practice of zazen.

The quick spread of Zen Buddhism in Japan was also a result of the arrival of numerous Chinese monks during the Kamakura period (1192-1333). Lan-chi Tao-lung (1213-1279) became the first head of the Kenchoji Temple in Kamakura. With the spread of Zen Buddhism, the government regulated Zen temples through the "Five Mountains" system, in which five major temples in Kyoto and Kamakura were designated by the government to control other minor temples affiliated with them. But the Eiheiji of the Soto school remained independent from governmental affiliation and practiced unadulterated Zen Bud-dhism.

In the Rinzai school, the group of the Daitokuji and Myoshinji is called the O-To-Kan after the abbreviation of the names of the three founding patriarchs: Nampo Jomyo (Daio Kokushi) (1235-1309), Shuho Myocho (Daito Kokushi) (1282-1338), and Kanzan Egen (1277-1360). Nampo, a student of Lan-chi, studied Zen Buddhism in China in 1259-1267. He represented one of the best traditions of Chinese Zen Buddhism and advocated a strict discipline that emphasized the study of koans. His heir, Shuho Myocho, established the Daitokuji Temple in 1324 and organized the first systematic program of koan study in Japanese Zen Buddhism. And Kanzan, a student of Shuho, founded the Myoshinji Temple in 1335. The O-To-Kan produced many great masters, such as Ikkyu (1394-1481), Takuan (1573-1643), and Hakuin (1686-1769), in the history of Japanese Zen Buddhism.

(3)

Hasidism

In Poland of the eighteenth century, the situation of Jewsih life was desperate. Outwardly, the Jews were surrounded by hostile Christian communities whose leaders not only imposed rigorous restrictions and taxation upon the Jews but also often initiated horrible persecutions. Inwardly, as a result of widespread corruption, there was a decline of Jewish community leadership. The poor no longer put trust in their leaders, and the latter despised the former. Because of their social and economic difficulties, there was a strong desire for spiritual con-solation in the heart of a desperate people. And even this desire was not fulfilled because of the rabbis' fear of heretical Messianism. People still remembered the storm of Shabbetai Tzevi, a false Messiah, who had shaken the entire world of Judaism in 1665 and 1666. And there were still many underground offspring of this movement in Eastern Europe. The Jews were demoralize by the helpless situation of their life within and without.

Under the circumstances, Rabbi Israel, the Baal Shem Tov of Medzhibozh, (c.1700-1760) started a new Jewish revival movement which was able to respond to the spiritual demand of his brethren. As indicated by the title "the Baal Shem Tov" (the good Master of the Name), his profession was to write amulets and prescribe magical charms to heal the sick by using mystical combination of the divine names. He was gifted not only with charismatic powers but also with religious insight to address the spiritual needs of people.

Realizing the problems of his generation and the need for love and restoration of mutual trust between the elite and the simple people, he demonstrated the possibility of curing the wounds of his people by encouraging them in faith and celebration of life. Although he was not a scholar, he attracted both rich and poor, scholars and illiterates alike. He taught them the immanence of God and joy. This is the foundation of Hasidic faith: "The whole earth is full of His glory" (Isaiah 6:3). God is everywhere. Therefore, "There is no place empty of Him." If one is accompanied by God wherever he goes, says the Baal Shem Tov,

one should be with joy all the time. He must think and believe with complete faith that the Shekhinah (the Divine Presence) is with him to protect him. When he looks up the Creator, blessed be He, He looks at him. The Creator, blessed be He, is able to do whatever He wants - if He desires, He destroys the whole universe in a moment and creates it in another moment. All of the goodness and punishments which exists in the world are rooted in Him, for in everything is there His divine effluence and vitality. Therefore, we never trust and fear anyone except Him, blessed be He.

People may segregate mankind for selfish reasons. But God never discriminates between people on the ground of their poverty or lack of education. God's omnipresence is for the sake of humankind. If it is so, why should we be sorrowful? To rejoice is a first step towards sanctifying God. The words of the Besht (abbreviation of Baal Shem Tov) consoled the broken hearts of the Jews and kindled hope.

Rabbi Abraham Gershon of Kuty, the Besht's brother-in-law, became his first admirer. Gershon was a chief judge at the rabbinical court of Brody and a member of the renowned Jewish mystical group called the Klaus. His participation in the new movement was of decisive importance in gaining public acceptance. Rabbi Nahman of Kosov, the friend of the Besht, was a man of contemplation and an ecstatic prayer who thought about God all the time no matter what he was doing. His meditative figure is indispensable in understanding the character of Hasidic contemplation. Among the disciples of the Besht, Rabbi Ya'akov Yoseph Hacohen of Polonnoye (d.1782) and Rabbi Dov Baer, the Great Maggid (Preacher) of Mezhirich (1710-1772) must be remembered. Ya'akov Yoseph published the first Hasidic book, Toldoth Ya'akov Yoseph (1780), which defended the position of the new move-ment and criticized the indifference of contemporary Jewish leaders. His unique philosophy of the relationship between the Zaddik and the people provided a theoretical background for the formation of Zaddikism in the Hasidic community. Dov Baer, the Great Maggid, became the heir of the Besht; he played an important role in establishing the practical pattern of Hasidism and in educating many young scholars to become committed leaders in the movement.

(4)

Hasidism reached the zenith of its development in the third generation (c.1773-1815). The masters took seriously their responsibility of spreading the teaching of Hasidism, and of taking care of various problems of people in Jewish communities throughout Eastern Europe. At the time, Hasidism was involved in a polemic initiated by its opponents, whom the Hasidim bluntly called the Mithnaggedim ('opponents' in Hebrew). Especially Rabbi Menahem Mendel of Vitebsk (d.1785), Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Lyady (1747-1813), and Rabbi Levi Yitzhak of Berdichev (1740-1809), all three were disciples of the Great Maggid, had a hard time for defending Hasidism. Shneur Zalman was twice imprisoned in Russia because of the accusation of the Mithnaggedim. He became the founder of Lubavich Hasidism. Many of the great Maggid's disciples established religious dynasties. We cannot neglect Rabbi Elimelekh of Lezajsk (1717-1786), another disciple of the Great Maggid, not only because of his Zaddikism but also because of the unique tradition of independent thinking. We find many great figures of his line in later Hasidism, such as Rabbi Ya'akov Yitzhak, the Seer of Lublin (1745-1815), Rabbi Menahem Mendel of Kock (Kotzk) (1787-1859)23 and Rabbi Yitzhak Meir of Gora Kawaria (Ger) (1799-1866). Nor can we overlook Hasidism without mentioning Rabbi Nahman of Bratslav (1772-1810), a great-grandson of the Besht. He developed a dialectical approach in Hasidism and encouraged his followers in dialogue with God.

In the nineteenth century, Hasidism generally became stale and institutionalized. Hasidism and the Mithnaggedim joined in a campaign against the new wave of secularization, such as Jewish Emancipation and Zionism. However, after World War I, many of Hasidim emigrated to the land of Israel from Eastern Europe, and some of them founded Hasidic communities, such as B'nei B'raq and K'far Hasidim.

During the Holocaust in World War II, the masses of Hasidim perished together with their leaders, and their centers were destroyed completely. Most of those who survived moved either to Israel or to the United States. Today Hasidism is regaining its strength, and especially Lubavich Hasidism shows an amazingly quick expansion in both Israel and the United States. This is probably the best example of the vitality and flexibility which are originally characteristic of Hasidism.

1: Introduction

2: Zazen and Devequth

3: Problem of "Strange Thoughts"

4: Annihilating Selfhood and Attaining Ecstasy

5: Concept of Man

6: Insecurity of Life